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GNDU Question Paper-2023
BA 1
st
Semester
HISTORY
[History of India Upto C.1000]
Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 100
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Write a detailed note on the following sources of Ancient Indian History
(a) Vedic Literature
(b) Sangam Literature.
2. Discuss the origin and developments of the main cities of Indus Valley Civilization.
SECTION-B
3. Write a detailed note on the Caste System and its impacts on the Indian Society.
4. What were the main factors responsible for the spread of Buddhism and its decline in
India?
SECTION-C
5. Discuss the main principles of Ashoka's Dhamma.
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6. Write a detailed note on the Kushan dynasty with the special reference of the
contribution of Kanishkas.
SECTION-D
7. Analyse the conquests of Harshvardhana and his contribution to spread of Budhism.
8. Write a critical note on the Art and Literature under the Chola Empire.
GNDU Answer Paper-2023
BA 1
st
Semester
HISTORY
[History of India Upto C.1000]
Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 100
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Write a detailed note on the following sources of Ancient Indian History
(a) Vedic Literature
(b) Sangam Literature.
Ans: Sources of Ancient Indian History
To understand the story of ancient India, we don’t have photographs, videos, or news
reports. Instead, we have something even more valuable: literature, which speaks through
time. Two of the richest literary sources that help us explore ancient Indian history are Vedic
Literature and Sangam Literature. These works are not just collections of poems or religious
texts—they are living windows into the life, beliefs, society, politics, economy, and culture
of their times.
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Let us now explore them one by one, like unfolding two great chapters of India’s ancient
past.
(a) Vedic Literature
Imagine going back more than 3,000 years, into a time where the Aryans had settled in
northern India, especially the Indo-Gangetic plains. This is the time when Vedic Literature
was born.
What is Vedic Literature?
Vedic literature is the collection of religious hymns, chants, rituals, philosophies, and
commentaries that were composed during the Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE to 600 BCE). It is
written in Sanskrit, and although it was initially transmitted orally for centuries, it was later
written down.
It is broadly divided into four parts:
1. The Samhitas (mainly hymns)
2. The Brahmanas (rituals and ceremonies)
3. The Aranyakas (forest texts—more philosophical)
4. The Upanishads (philosophical teachings and ideas)
Let’s take a closer look at these.
1. The Samhitas – Core of Vedic Hymns
The most famous of the Samhitas is the Rigveda, the oldest known literary text of India. It
contains over 1,000 hymns dedicated to gods like Agni (fire), Indra (warrior god), and Soma
(sacred drink). These hymns reveal how the early Vedic people worshipped nature and lived
in small tribal communities.
Other Samhitas include:
• Samaveda – mostly musical chants, important for rituals.
• Yajurveda – guidebook for priests performing sacrifices.
• Atharvaveda – includes spells, charms, and domestic rituals.
Historical Value: From these texts, historians learn about early religious practices, political
organization (tribal kings, sabhas and samitis), economic life (cattle rearing, agriculture),
social structure, and values of Vedic people.
2. The Brahmanas – Ritual Manuals
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These texts explain the rituals and ceremonies mentioned in the Samhitas. They are more
detailed and help us understand the importance of sacrifices (yajnas) and the role of priests
(Brahmins).
Historical Value: They show the shift from simple to complex rituals, rise of priestly class,
and the growth of religious hierarchy.
3. The Aranyakas – Forest Writings
These are called ‘forest books’ because they were studied and written by hermits living in
forests. They are more spiritual and symbolic.
Historical Value: Aranyakas show a shift from ritualism to spirituality—an early sign of
philosophical thought that would later become important in Hinduism and other Indian
religions.
4. The Upanishads – Philosophical Thinkers
These are the crown jewels of Vedic literature. They explore deep philosophical ideas like
the soul (Atman), universal spirit (Brahman), karma, rebirth, and liberation (moksha).
Historical Value: They tell us how Indian thought evolved from rituals to introspection,
laying the foundation for later religious systems like Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
In Summary – Why Vedic Literature is Important?
• It tells the story of Aryan settlement in India.
• Helps us understand religious and social transformation.
• Gives clues about language, geography, and economy.
• Describes the origin of caste divisions and patriarchal society.
• Forms the spiritual foundation of Indian culture.
(b) Sangam Literature
Now, let us travel south to ancient Tamilakam—the region covering present-day Tamil Nadu
and parts of Kerala and Sri Lanka, around 300 BCE to 300 CE. This is the land of the Sangam
poets.
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What is Sangam Literature?
Sangam literature refers to the classical Tamil literature created during the time of the
Sangam assemblies (gatherings of poets and scholars). These works are mainly secular,
though they also reflect religious beliefs and practices.
The Sangam literature is written in old Tamil and is divided into:
• Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies)
• Pattuppāṭṭu (Ten Idylls)
• Tolkāppiyam (ancient Tamil grammar and poetics)
Themes and Content of Sangam Literature
Sangam literature covers two main aspects:
1. Akam (Inner life)
These are love poems that describe emotions, relationships, and romantic experiences in a
symbolic manner. The landscapes (kurinji - hills, mullai - forests, marutham - plains, neithal -
sea, palai - desert) were used to represent different kinds of love.
2. Puram (Outer life)
These poems deal with warfare, kingship, heroism, generosity, ethics, and public life. They
give us a rich account of political structures, wars, trade, festivals, and society.
Major Works and Authors
Some famous works include:
• Purananuru – Poems about kings, battles, and warriors.
• Akananuru – Poems about love and relationships.
• Tolkappiyam – An important text on grammar, poetry, and social customs.
• Silappadikaram and Manimekalai – Later epic poems that also reflect Buddhist and
Jain ideas.
Historical Value of Sangam Literature
• Political Structure: Describes chiefdoms and kingdoms (like Cholas, Cheras, and
Pandyas).
• Social Life: Gives insights into marriage, caste-like divisions, position of women, and
daily life.
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• Economic Life: Talks about trade, agriculture, crafts, urbanization, and foreign trade
with Rome and Southeast Asia.
• Cultural Life: Rich in music, dance, poetry, and fine arts.
In Summary – Why Sangam Literature is Important?
• Offers authentic native record of South Indian culture.
• Helps bridge the gap between myth and history in southern India.
• Serves as a non-religious, secular historical source.
• Reflects realistic descriptions of people, landscapes, and society.
Conclusion
Vedic and Sangam literature are two priceless mirrors of India’s ancient past—one from the
north, steeped in spiritual and ritual thought; the other from the south, vibrant with love,
war, and society. Together, they give us a more complete picture of early Indian
civilization—its mind, its heart, and its soul.
For students of history, these texts are not just sources, but stories waiting to be explored,
offering valuable lessons from the distant past to understand the present and the future.
2. Discuss the origin and developments of the main cities of Indus Valley Civilization.
Ans: Introduction
Thousands of years ago, when much of the world was still figuring out how to farm and
settle down, a highly advanced civilization flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent. This was the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan
Civilization. It existed around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE, making it one of the world’s earliest
urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
This civilization was remarkable for its planned cities, advanced drainage systems, and well-
organized urban life. Let us now explore the origin and development of the main cities of
the Indus Valley Civilization in a story-like, easy-to-understand manner.
The Birth of Civilization – The Beginning
The Indus Valley Civilization originated near the Indus River (in modern-day Pakistan), which
provided water for agriculture and supported human settlements. People began to settle
near riverbanks because rivers offered fertile land for farming, easy transportation, and
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drinking water. Over time, small farming villages grew bigger and more organized, leading to
the rise of great urban centers.
Archaeological excavations reveal that the people of this civilization were highly skilled
urban planners, craftsmen, and traders. Unlike other ancient civilizations that were ruled by
kings or priests, the Indus people seem to have had a more egalitarian (equal) society, as no
grand palaces or temples have been found.
Now, let us visit some of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization and understand
their origin, growth, and unique features.
1. Harappa – The Pioneer City
Harappa was the first city of the civilization to be discovered, in the 1920s, in present-day
Punjab, Pakistan. It gave the entire civilization its name – Harappan Civilization.
• Planning and Structure: Harappa was well-planned with streets laid out in a grid
pattern (north-south and east-west directions). The city was divided into two parts –
the citadel (fortified area) and the lower town.
• Granary: One of the most important structures found here was a granary, which
suggests organized storage and possibly state-controlled food distribution.
• Drainage System: The city had an advanced underground drainage system, showing
that the people gave importance to cleanliness and public health.
• Artifacts: Tools, pottery, terracotta figurines, and seals found here show a rich and
advanced culture.
Harappa was likely a major trade and administrative center.
2. Mohenjo-Daro – The Jewel of the Civilization
The name “Mohenjo-Daro” means "Mound of the Dead" in Sindhi. This city, located in
modern-day Sindh, Pakistan, is considered the most well-planned and advanced city of the
Indus Valley Civilization.
• Urban Planning: Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid pattern with wide roads,
streetlights, and proper housing blocks. It was divided into the citadel (public
buildings) and the lower residential area.
• The Great Bath: One of the most famous structures here is the Great Bath, a large,
well-constructed public bathing area. It suggests that water rituals or hygiene played
an important role in Harappan life.
• Houses and Drains: The houses had bathrooms and toilets connected to a complex
drainage system, showing an understanding of sanitation.
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• Trade and Culture: The city had docks, storage areas, workshops, and marketplaces.
Numerous seals, weights, and measures indicate a standardized trade system.
• Engineering Marvel: The level of urban planning and water management in
Mohenjo-Daro was so advanced that even modern cities could learn from it.
3. Dholavira – The City of Water Management
Dholavira is located in present-day Gujarat, India, on the island of Khadir in the Rann of
Kutch. It is one of the most remarkable discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization in India.
• Unique Features: Unlike Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira had stone
constructions instead of burnt bricks. The city layout included a citadel, middle town,
and lower town – all surrounded by massive walls.
• Water Conservation: Dholavira was located in a dry area, so water was precious. The
people built sophisticated reservoirs, dams, and channels to store and manage
rainwater. This shows their deep understanding of environmental challenges.
• Signboards: A large inscription board with Harappan script has been found here. It
might have been used for public messages, showing the early use of written
communication.
Dholavira teaches us how urban planning can adapt to different geographic conditions.
4. Lothal – The Port City
Lothal was a trade and industrial hub, located in present-day Gujarat, India.
• Dockyard: Lothal had a well-designed dockyard, which was connected to rivers that
flowed into the Arabian Sea. It is believed to be the world’s earliest known dock. This
helped in maritime trade with Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq).
• Workshops: The city had workshops where beads, ornaments, and pottery were
produced. These were exported to other regions.
• Town Planning: Like other cities, it had well-constructed houses, roads, and drains.
• Warehouse: A large warehouse was used for storing goods, proving that trade and
commerce were central to Lothal's economy.
5. Kalibangan – The City of Fire Altars
Kalibangan is located in present-day Rajasthan, India.
• Agriculture: Kalibangan showed early use of the plough, proving that the people
practiced organized agriculture.
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• Fire Altars: Unlike other cities, Kalibangan had fire altars, possibly used for religious
or ritual purposes.
• Town Layout: It had a similar layout with citadel and lower town, proper streets, and
drainage systems.
The Decline of the Cities
After around 1900 BCE, these great cities started to decline due to several possible reasons:
• Climate change and drying up of rivers like the Saraswati.
• Floods, earthquakes, or disease outbreaks.
• Decline in trade with Mesopotamia.
• Invasion or internal conflicts.
Eventually, people abandoned these cities and moved to smaller villages. The script was
forgotten, and the civilization disappeared into history until rediscovered in the 20th
century.
Conclusion
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were ahead of their time. From Mohenjo-Daro’s
Great Bath to Dholavira’s water reservoirs and Lothal’s dockyard, these cities tell a
fascinating story of urban innovation, engineering, and human intelligence.
Even though we still cannot read the Harappan script, the remains of their cities continue to
inspire awe and teach us valuable lessons about planning, sustainability, and community
living. These cities were not just brick and stone—they were living models of a highly
organized society that once shone brightly in the cradle of civilization.
SECTION-B
3. Write a detailed note on the Caste System and its impacts on the Indian Society.
Ans: Introduction: The Story of a Divided Ladder
Imagine a ladder in an ancient village. At the top are people considered pure and respected;
at the bottom are people forced to do the dirtiest work, often treated as untouchable. This
ladder represents the caste system, a form of social division that has existed in Indian
society for thousands of years. It shaped people’s lives — what job they did, whom they
could marry, and how others treated them. This system is deeply rooted in tradition, but
over time, it became a major cause of inequality and injustice in India.
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What is the Caste System?
The caste system is a social hierarchy that divides people into fixed groups. In ancient India,
this system was called the Varna system, described in the Vedas — the oldest sacred texts of
Hinduism. According to this system, society was divided into four main varnas (classes):
1. Brahmins – Priests and scholars who performed religious rituals and preserved
knowledge.
2. Kshatriyas – Warriors and rulers who protected the society and governed.
3. Vaishyas – Merchants and traders who handled commerce and agriculture.
4. Shudras – Laborers and service providers who worked for the other three varnas.
Outside this system were the "Untouchables" (now referred to as Dalits), who were forced
to do menial and impure tasks such as cleaning drains, handling dead bodies, and sweeping
streets.
Origin and Evolution
The caste system began with occupational divisions and was not as rigid in the beginning.
People could change jobs, and the system was more flexible. But over centuries, it became
hereditary — a person’s caste was fixed by birth. This created a closed social system, where
moving from one caste to another was almost impossible.
Over time, caste became linked with purity and pollution — some castes were seen as pure,
while others were considered impure. This belief caused discrimination and untouchability,
where people of lower castes were denied entry into temples, schools, and public wells. This
system became deeply ingrained in Indian culture, religion, and everyday life.
Caste in Indian Society Today
Although India’s Constitution abolished untouchability and made caste-based discrimination
illegal in 1950, caste still plays a significant role in many parts of society. It influences:
• Marriage (most people still prefer caste-based marriages),
• Politics (many political parties seek votes based on caste identity),
• Education and Employment (due to affirmative action/reservation for SC/ST/OBC
categories),
• Social Interactions (some communities still avoid mingling with lower castes).
Major Impacts of the Caste System on Indian Society
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Let’s look at how the caste system has affected Indian society, both historically and in the
present:
1. Social Inequality
The caste system created deep divisions between people. Brahmins and upper castes
enjoyed respect and opportunities, while lower castes suffered discrimination and
exclusion. Dalits were often treated as "less than human." They couldn't enter temples, eat
with upper castes, or even walk freely in certain areas.
2. Denial of Education
For many centuries, education was restricted to the upper castes. Dalits and Shudras were
denied access to learning. This created a knowledge gap, which kept lower castes in poverty
and ignorance for generations.
3. Economic Exploitation
Most lower castes were landless laborers, working for upper-caste landlords. They earned
very little and lived in poor conditions. They were forced into traditional jobs (like sweeping,
washing, leather work) and were not allowed to take up better occupations.
4. Violence and Atrocities
Caste-based violence has been a painful part of India’s history. Dalits have often faced
physical assaults, sexual violence, and even mass killings just for breaking caste rules — such
as marrying outside their caste or entering a temple.
5. Lack of Social Mobility
In a caste-based society, your birth decides your life. A child born in a lower caste, no matter
how talented, had little chance of improving his or her life. This stopped progress and
innovation, as people were not allowed to follow their talents.
6. Division and Conflict
Caste created deep social divides. Instead of seeing each other as equals, people began
identifying strongly with their own caste. This led to conflicts, mistrust, and hatred among
groups. Even today, caste-based politics and reservation debates create tensions in Indian
society.
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Steps Taken to Eradicate Caste Discrimination
The Indian government and social reformers have taken many steps to remove caste-based
inequalities:
1. Constitutional Measures
• Article 15 and Article 17 of the Indian Constitution prohibit caste discrimination and
abolish untouchability.
• Reservations (affirmative action) in jobs, education, and politics are given to
Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC).
2. Legal Protection
• Laws such as the Prevention of Atrocities Act (1989) protect Dalits from violence and
abuse.
• Discrimination in employment, housing, and public spaces is punishable by law.
3. Social Reform Movements
Great reformers like:
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (himself a Dalit) fought for Dalit rights and drafted the
Constitution.
• Mahatma Gandhi called Dalits Harijans (children of God) and worked to integrate
them into society.
• Other reformers like Jyotirao Phule, Periyar, and Swami Vivekananda challenged the
caste system.
Conclusion: Toward an Equal Society
The caste system may have started as a way to organize society, but it ended up creating
centuries of injustice and suffering. It stopped people from living freely and fully. Even
though India has made progress, caste continues to affect minds and behaviors.
As educated university students, it is important to question such social systems and work for
a more equal, fair, and united society. True development will happen only when every
Indian — regardless of caste — gets equal respect, opportunity, and dignity.
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Final Thought
Just like that old ladder in the village, we must not climb by pushing others down. Instead,
we must build a bridge of equality, where everyone walks side by side — with pride, with
rights, and with justice.
4. What were the main factors responsible for the spread of Buddhism and its decline in
India?
Ans: Introduction
Long ago, in the 6th century BCE, when India was full of rituals, caste divisions, and complex
religious practices, a gentle revolution began in the form of Buddhism. Founded by
Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha or “the Enlightened One,” Buddhism offered a
simple, peaceful path that focused on morality, meditation, and wisdom. It rejected caste,
encouraged equality, and spread like wildfire across the Indian subcontinent and even
beyond.
But while Buddhism rose to great heights, it also eventually declined in India — the land of
its birth.
Let’s understand this journey like a story — from how Buddhism spread, to why it declined,
in an easy and engaging manner.
Part I: Factors Responsible for the Spread of Buddhism
1. Simple and Practical Teachings
• Buddha taught people in simple language (Pali) — not in complex Sanskrit like the
Brahmins. His message was clear and easy to follow: avoid greed, live ethically,
meditate, and seek truth.
People who were tired of complicated rituals and caste-based discrimination found
peace in Buddhism.
2. Revolt Against the Caste System
In ancient India, the varna system (caste hierarchy) had become rigid. People from lower
castes were not allowed to read scriptures or perform rituals.
Buddhism rejected this idea. It promoted equality. That’s why large numbers of Shudras and
women accepted Buddhism — they finally felt respected.
3. Support from Kings and Emperors
One of the biggest supporters of Buddhism was Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE). After
witnessing the bloodshed in the Kalinga War, he adopted Buddhism and spread its message
of non-violence.
He built stupas, viharas, and pillars with inscriptions of Buddha’s teachings. He even sent
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missionaries to countries like Sri Lanka, China, Myanmar, and beyond.
This royal patronage gave Buddhism great political strength and visibility.
4. Buddhist Councils
After Buddha’s death, several councils were held to preserve and promote his teachings.
These councils helped systematize Buddhist doctrines and literature, and ensured that the
religion stayed organized and united.
• The Third Buddhist Council under Ashoka was especially important — it helped in the
global spread of Buddhism.
5. Missionary Zeal
Buddhist monks (bhikkhus) traveled across India and abroad, spreading the message of
peace and compassion.
They were well-organized, disciplined, and committed to their cause. The monasteries they
established became centers of learning and attracted students from all over Asia.
6. Development of Monasteries
Buddhist monasteries (called Viharas) were more than just religious centers. They became
like universities, where people studied philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and more.
Great institutions like Nalanda and Takshashila played a big role in both preserving
knowledge and spreading Buddhism.
7. Art and Architecture
Buddhism was not just a religion but a cultural movement.
Beautiful stupas (like Sanchi), rock-cut caves (like Ajanta and Ellora), and sculpture art
attracted people emotionally and aesthetically. This helped make Buddhism popular even
among the masses.
Part II: Factors Responsible for the Decline of Buddhism in India
Despite such a glorious rise, Buddhism began to decline in India from around the 7th
century CE. Here are the main reasons:
1. Revival of Hinduism
By the Gupta period (around 4th–6th century CE), Hinduism experienced a revival.
• Great scholars like Adi Shankaracharya reformed Hindu practices and spread
Vedanta philosophy.
• Hinduism adapted some of the good practices of Buddhism (like devotion and non-
violence) and became more flexible.
• People began returning to Hinduism as it became more inclusive and organized.
2. Division within Buddhism
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Buddhism started splitting into many sects:
• Hinayana (smaller vehicle)
• Mahayana (greater vehicle)
• Vajrayana (tantric Buddhism)
These divisions led to confusion and loss of unity. People couldn’t understand the changes,
and the simple message of the Buddha was often lost in complex rituals.
3. Loss of Royal Patronage
After Ashoka, although some kings supported Buddhism, many later rulers (like Guptas and
Rajputs) favored Hinduism.
Without royal support, monasteries lost funding, and Buddhism began to shrink.
4. Invasion and Destruction by Foreign Invaders
The Turkish and Islamic invasions during the 11th and 12th centuries were a major blow.
• Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori attacked and destroyed Buddhist
monasteries like Nalanda and Vikramshila, which were the lifeline of Buddhist
education.
Thousands of monks were killed, and many fled to Nepal, Tibet, or Southeast Asia.
5. Corruption in Monasteries
Over time, some monasteries became rich and corrupt.
Monks started focusing more on luxury than spiritual practice. The public lost faith in them,
and this moral decline led to a loss of credibility.
6. Lack of Mass Appeal in Later Periods
In its early phase, Buddhism spoke to the common people. But later, it became intellectual
and philosophical, focusing on debates rather than action.
This made it difficult for the common man to understand and follow the religion.
Conclusion
The story of Buddhism in India is like the story of a candle — one that burned brightly and lit
up the world, but slowly faded in its homeland.
Its initial success came from simplicity, compassion, and equality. Its decline came from
internal divisions, external attacks, and the rise of reformed Hinduism.
However, while it may have declined in India, Buddhism continues to thrive globally — in
countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet, Japan, and more.
Even in modern India, the message of Buddha lives on in values like peace, non-violence,
and mindfulness.
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Summary Table
Spread of Buddhism
Decline of Buddhism
Simple teachings and rejection of caste
Revival of Hinduism
Support from Ashoka and other kings
Division into sects like Mahayana and Vajrayana
Missionary activities and councils
Loss of royal support
Establishment of monasteries like Nalanda
Invasions and destruction of monasteries
Art, architecture, and cultural appeal
Corruption and loss of public trust
Use of local languages (Pali)
Too much focus on philosophy, lost mass appeal
SECTION-C
5. Discuss the main principles of Ashoka's Dhamma.
Ans: Introduction
Imagine a great emperor who ruled a vast empire from Afghanistan to Bengal and from the
Himalayas to southern India, yet after a violent war, he gave up violence and turned
towards peace, tolerance, and kindness. This is the story of Emperor Ashoka, one of the
most iconic and respected rulers in Indian history. He ruled the Maurya Empire in the 3rd
century BCE.
After the bloody Kalinga War, where thousands of soldiers and civilians died, Ashoka was
deeply disturbed by the destruction. His heart changed, and he embraced Buddhism. But
rather than forcing Buddhism on his people, he created a unique philosophy known as
“Dhamma” — a moral code for good living, which was not limited to any one religion.
Let’s now understand what Ashoka’s Dhamma actually meant and what its main principles
were.
What is Dhamma?
• The word "Dhamma" comes from the Sanskrit word “Dharma”, which means the
right path or moral duty.
• However, Ashoka's Dhamma was not religious. It was a set of ethical values meant to
guide people on how to live a peaceful, responsible, and harmonious life.
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• Ashoka wanted unity in his large and diverse empire — where people of different
religions, castes, and languages lived. So, he created Dhamma as a common moral
ground that everyone could follow.
Main Principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma
Let’s now explore the key principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma like a moral storybook — each
value carrying a deep meaning.
1. Respect for All Religions
Ashoka promoted religious tolerance. He believed that no religion is better or worse than
the other. All should be respected.
“A person should honour his own religion while respecting other religions as well.”
(Ashokan Edict)
Example: In his empire, there were Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas, and many others.
Ashoka never forced Buddhism; instead, he supported all religious communities and their
festivals.
2. Non-violence (Ahimsa)
After the horrors of the Kalinga War, Ashoka adopted Ahimsa, the principle of not harming
any living being.
• He banned animal sacrifices.
• Reduced hunting in royal households.
• Built hospitals for animals.
Moral: All life is sacred, and one must not harm others out of cruelty or selfishness.
3. Compassion and Kindness
Ashoka believed that to live a good life, one must show kindness to others, especially to the
poor, the elderly, children, and even prisoners.
• He built rest houses, wells, and shade trees along roads.
• Appointed special officers called “Dhamma Mahamatras” to take care of the
people's well-being.
Real-life example: If someone was in prison, Ashoka ensured they were treated humanely.
He believed in reform, not just punishment.
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4. Truthfulness and Moral Living
Ashoka emphasized honesty, integrity, and clean behavior.
• People should not lie or cheat.
• They should live with self-control and avoid greed or anger.
He believed that a society becomes strong when individuals follow moral behavior in their
everyday lives.
5. Obedience to Parents and Elders
Ashoka highlighted family values in his Dhamma.
• Children must obey and take care of their parents.
• Young people must respect their elders and teachers.
This principle ensured social stability and generational harmony.
6. Good Conduct Towards Servants and Slaves
At a time when slaves and servants were often mistreated, Ashoka introduced a humane
idea: treat them with dignity.
He believed in equality and kindness, even towards those of lower social or economic
positions.
7. Justice and Fair Treatment
Ashoka laid great emphasis on justice and fairness.
• He told his officers not to act in anger or haste.
• Even in punishment, fairness and compassion were necessary.
• Special officers were appointed to hear the concerns of people, especially in rural
areas.
This ensured transparent and people-friendly governance.
8. Promoting Peace and Harmony
Ashoka's Dhamma aimed to create a society where people live in peace, without hatred or
jealousy.
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• Ashoka stopped waging wars.
• Sent ambassadors of peace to countries like Sri Lanka, Egypt, and Greece.
• Promoted dialogue and understanding among different communities.
How Did Ashoka Spread Dhamma?
Ashoka made sure his principles reached everyone:
• He got his teachings inscribed on rocks and pillars in local languages.
• Sent Buddhist missionaries, like his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta, to
countries like Sri Lanka.
• Built schools, hospitals, roads, and rest houses as acts of Dhamma in action.
Importance and Legacy of Dhamma
• Ashoka’s Dhamma united his vast empire through ethics rather than fear.
• It inspired future generations of rulers in India and abroad.
• His model of governance based on morality, tolerance, and public welfare is admired
even today.
• The Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath is now the national emblem of India, and
the Dhamma Chakra (Wheel of Dhamma) is at the center of the Indian flag.
Conclusion
Ashoka’s Dhamma was not just a political idea but a moral revolution. It was ahead of its
time — talking about non-violence, tolerance, equality, kindness, and peace. In a world
divided by religion and power, Ashoka showed that a king can win hearts not with war but
with wisdom and compassion.
For university students today, Ashoka’s Dhamma is a reminder that real strength lies in
character, not in weapons — and true leadership is about serving the people with love and
justice.
6. Write a detailed note on the Kushan dynasty with the special reference of the
contribution of Kanishkas.
Ans: Introduction to the Kushan Dynasty
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The Kushan dynasty was one of the most significant and powerful dynasties of ancient India
and Central Asia. Originating from Central Asia, the Kushans belonged to a nomadic tribe
known as the Yuezhi, who were pushed out of China and settled in Bactria (modern
Afghanistan and parts of Tajikistan). Eventually, they came to control a vast empire that
extended from Central Asia to Northern India.
The Kushan Empire flourished between 1st century CE to 3rd century CE. This period was a
golden era in terms of trade, culture, religion, and art. The most famous and celebrated
ruler of the Kushan dynasty was Emperor Kanishka, who not only expanded the empire but
also made lasting contributions to religion, art, and culture.
The Rise of the Kushans
After settling in Bactria, the Yuezhi tribe eventually united under a single leader, Kujula
Kadphises, the first prominent Kushan ruler. He established the foundation of the Kushan
Empire in the early 1st century CE. His successors, especially Vima Kadphises, expanded the
empire into northwestern India and issued the first gold coins, showing signs of wealth and
trade.
However, it was under Kanishka, the greatest of all Kushan rulers, that the empire reached
its peak in terms of territorial expansion and cultural glory.
Kanishka: The Great Emperor
Kanishka I ascended the throne around 78 CE, which also marks the beginning of the Shaka
Era (Saka Era) — an important Indian calendar still used today. He ruled from Peshawar
(Purushapura) in present-day Pakistan.
Kanishka’s reign was significant in many ways. Let us look at his contributions in a detailed
and simple manner.
1. Political and Military Achievements
Kanishka was a strong and ambitious ruler. He expanded his empire in all directions:
• Westward into Central Asia and parts of Iran.
• Eastward into the Gangetic plains.
• Southward into parts of Madhya Pradesh.
• Northward into parts of modern-day China.
Because of his military conquests, he was often compared to Ashoka and Chandragupta
Maurya.
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His empire connected the Silk Route, which was the ancient trade route between China and
the Roman Empire. This route was extremely important for the exchange of goods, culture,
and ideas.
2. Religious Contributions – Patron of Buddhism
One of the most important aspects of Kanishka’s rule was his support of Buddhism.
a) Fourth Buddhist Council (around 100 CE)
Kanishka organized the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana (near present-day Srinagar,
Kashmir). This council was mainly conducted in the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism and
played a very important role in the spread of Mahayana Buddhism.
This was the time when Buddhism started to evolve from a simple spiritual path into a more
diverse and philosophical religion, with different sects and doctrines.
b) Spread of Buddhism Abroad
Kanishka supported missionary work. Under his rule, Buddhism spread beyond India to
Central Asia, China, and Tibet. This helped transform Buddhism into an international
religion.
He also sent Buddhist scholars and monks, such as Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, and Vasumitra,
to different parts of Asia.
3. Contribution to Art and Culture
Kanishka was a great patron of art and culture.
a) Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art
During his reign, two major styles of art flourished:
• Gandhara School – which had strong Greco-Roman influences. The statues of
Buddha in this style look like Roman gods, with curly hair, robes, and realistic human
features.
• Mathura School – which was more indigenous and Indian in style, using red
sandstone and featuring Indian motifs.
These art forms marked the first time that Buddha was represented in human form rather
than just symbols like the Bodhi tree or the Dharma wheel.
b) Architecture and Sculpture
Under Kanishka, many stupas, monasteries, and sculptures were built. One of the most
famous structures was the Kanishka Stupa at Peshawar. Though it is no longer standing,
historical records suggest it was one of the tallest buildings of the ancient world.
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4. Literary Contributions
Kanishka’s court was home to many scholars and writers, such as:
• Ashvaghosha, the author of Buddhacharita, a Sanskrit biography of Buddha.
• Charaka, the famous physician, who wrote Charaka Samhita, an important text in
Ayurveda.
• Vasumitra, who played a key role in the Fourth Buddhist Council.
Kanishka himself was interested in religion and philosophy and encouraged writing and
translations of texts, especially Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into other languages.
5. Economic Prosperity and Coinage
Kanishka issued beautiful coins made of gold, silver, and copper. His coins are remarkable
because they had Greek, Iranian, Indian, and Buddhist deities on them, showing how
multicultural his empire was.
His coins had Greek scripts initially, but later shifted to Bactrian and Indian scripts, reflecting
the blending of cultures. These coins help historians understand the religion, language, and
art of that time.
Conclusion
The Kushan dynasty, especially under the rule of Kanishka the Great, was a shining chapter
in Indian and Asian history. Kanishka’s contributions in the fields of politics, religion, art,
culture, and trade were immense. He played a key role in transforming Buddhism into a
global religion, encouraged the growth of Gandhara and Mathura art, and maintained a rich,
diverse, and tolerant empire.
Because of his efforts, the Kushan Empire became a bridge between East and West, a hub of
cultural exchange and spiritual growth. Kanishka was not just a warrior king but also a
visionary and patron of learning, and that’s why he is remembered with great respect in
Indian and world history.
Summary of Kanishka’s Contributions:
Area
Contribution
Military
Vast empire expansion
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Area
Contribution
Religion
Promotion of Mahayana Buddhism; 4th Buddhist Council
Art
Development of Gandhara & Mathura schools
Literature
Patron of scholars like Ashvaghosha, Charaka
Economy
Introduction of gold coins; flourishing trade
Culture
Spread of Indian culture and Buddhism abroad
SECTION-D
7. Analyse the conquests of Harshvardhana and his contribution to spread of Budhism.
Ans: The Conquests of Harshavardhana and His Contribution to the Spread of Buddhism
In the early 7th century CE, northern India witnessed the rise of a powerful and noble king
named Harshavardhana. Born into the Pushyabhuti dynasty, Harsha was not just a warrior
and empire-builder, but also a great patron of religion, culture, and learning. His story is
both fascinating and inspiring, especially because of his efforts to unite northern India and
spread the message of peace through Buddhism.
Early Life of Harshavardhana: A Prince with a Purpose
Harsha was born in 590 CE in Thanesar, a town in present-day Haryana. His father,
Prabhakaravardhana, was a powerful ruler who had declared himself as Maharajadhiraja
(King of Kings). Harsha had an elder brother, Rajyavardhana, and a sister, Rajyashri, who was
married to the Maukhari king of Kannauj.
However, Harsha's peaceful life changed after a series of tragic events. His father died in
battle, and soon after, Rajyavardhana was murdered by a rival king named Shashanka, the
ruler of Bengal. On top of this, his sister Rajyashri was captured and imprisoned. Filled with
grief and anger, Harsha decided to avenge his family and restore order in the region.
Conquests of Harshavardhana: Uniting North India
At the age of just 16, Harsha took the throne and began a mission to expand his kingdom
and bring peace. He showed great military skill and political wisdom.
1. Rescue of Rajyashri:
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His first action was to rescue his sister from captivity. Rajyashri had tried to commit self-
immolation (sati), but Harsha reached in time and saved her. This emotional episode shows
his deep love for his family and his sense of responsibility.
2. War Against Shashanka (Bengal):
To avenge his brother's death, Harsha marched against Shashanka, the king of Gauda
(Bengal). Although Shashanka was a strong ruler and resisted Harsha’s attacks, Harsha
eventually managed to bring parts of Bengal under his influence after Shashanka’s death.
3. Expansion Across the North:
Over the next few years, Harsha expanded his empire to include Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, and parts of Madhya Pradesh. He created a vast kingdom stretching
from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada River in the south, and from Assam in the
east to Gujarat in the west.
However, he could not conquer the south. When he tried to cross the Narmada and attack
the Chalukya kingdom, he was defeated by Pulakeshin II, the powerful Chalukya ruler of the
Deccan. This battle is recorded in the famous Aihole inscription by Pulakeshin.
4. Administration and Peace:
Despite his military achievements, Harsha was not a cruel conqueror. He ruled with
kindness, justice, and efficiency. He allowed local rulers to stay in power if they accepted his
authority. He also built roads, rest houses, hospitals, and encouraged trade and agriculture.
Contribution to the Spread of Buddhism: A King with a Spiritual Vision
Although Harsha was born into a Hindu family and worshipped Lord Shiva, he developed a
deep interest in Buddhism, especially Mahayana Buddhism, which focuses on compassion,
helping others, and the path of the Bodhisattva.
1. Friendship with Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang):
One of the most important sources of information about Harsha’s reign comes from
Xuanzang (also known as Hiuen Tsang), a Chinese Buddhist monk who visited India around
630 CE. Xuanzang was welcomed by Harsha with great respect and was even allowed to visit
Buddhist universities like Nalanda.
Xuanzang wrote in detail about Harsha’s generosity, religious tolerance, and efforts to
promote Buddhism. He described how Harsha used to wear simple clothes, fast regularly,
and donate wealth to the poor and to Buddhist monasteries.
2. Religious Assemblies:
Harsha organized a grand religious gathering known as the Kannauj Assembly in 643 CE. This
event was attended by thousands of monks, scholars, and kings from different parts of India
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and other countries. Xuanzang was the chief speaker, and Harsha himself took care of the
guests and even cleaned their feet!
Three years later, he organized another massive event at Prayaga (modern-day Allahabad),
called the Maha Moksha Parishad, which was held every five years. At this event, Harsha
gave away all his wealth, clothes, and ornaments to the poor and religious figures. This
shows how deeply he believed in Buddhist values like charity and selflessness.
3. Support to Nalanda University:
Harsha provided royal support to Nalanda, the great center of Buddhist learning. The
university attracted students from countries like China, Korea, and Sri Lanka. Harsha gave
land, money, and protection to ensure that Buddhist learning flourished.
4. Religious Tolerance:
Even though Harsha supported Buddhism, he was tolerant of other religions. He respected
Brahmanical traditions and gave donations to Hindu temples as well. This made his kingdom
a place of peaceful coexistence, where scholars and saints of different religions could live
and debate freely.
Legacy of Harshavardhana
Harshavardhana ruled for about 41 years and died in 647 CE. Unfortunately, after his death,
his empire quickly declined because he had no strong successor. However, his legacy lived
on:
• He reunified north India after centuries of division.
• He helped revive Buddhism at a time when it was declining.
• He promoted education, art, literature, and culture.
• His court poet Banabhatta wrote the famous biography Harshacharita, which tells us
a lot about his life and times.
Conclusion
Harshavardhana was not just a conqueror, but a builder of peace and knowledge. His efforts
to spread Buddhism, support scholars like Xuanzang, and organize massive assemblies of
faith, make him one of the most respected rulers in Indian history.
Through his actions, Harsha showed that true kingship is not about power or war, but about
serving the people, promoting knowledge, and respecting all religions. He remains a shining
example of ideal kingship and cultural leadership in ancient India.
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8. Write a critical note on the Art and Literature under the Chola Empire.
Ans: The Chola Empire, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in South India, is not only known
for its military conquests and administrative brilliance but also for its unmatched
contributions to art and literature. Between the 9th and 13th centuries, the Cholas
transformed Tamil culture through magnificent temples, beautiful sculptures, and rich
literary works. Let us explore the world of Chola art and literature like a journey through
time.
Setting the Stage: The Golden Age of the Cholas
Imagine yourself in the southern part of India, around 1000 years ago. The land is fertile,
rivers are flowing, and cities are flourishing with trade and culture. This is the era of
Rajendra Chola, Rajaraja Chola, and their successors. They not only built a powerful kingdom
but also became great patrons of art and literature. Under their rule, creativity bloomed like
never before.
Let’s now understand how art and literature evolved under the Cholas.
Art under the Chola Empire
The Cholas took art very seriously. To them, art was not just about beauty—it was a form of
devotion and a way to express power, religion, and creativity.
1. Temple Architecture: More than Just Buildings
Chola temples were not small structures. They were massive, tall, and made of stone, often
acting as the center of both religious and social life. The most famous temple is the
Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja Chola I around 1010 CE.
Let’s break down its importance:
• Dravidian Style: Chola temples followed the Dravidian style with tall towers (called
vimanas), pillared halls (mandapas), and intricate carvings.
• Symbol of Power: These temples were not just for worship—they showed the
empire’s strength. The size and beauty reflected the king’s greatness.
• Center of Life: Inside the temple, music and dance would take place. It was like a
cultural hub.
Other important temples include:
• Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple
• Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram
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• Chidambaram Nataraja Temple
These temples are now part of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and are globally admired for
their architecture.
2. Sculpture: When Stones Came to Life
Chola sculpture is considered the best example of South Indian bronze art.
• The most iconic sculpture is the Nataraja—Lord Shiva in a dancing pose, with one
foot raised, standing in a ring of fire. It represents the cosmic dance of creation and
destruction.
• These bronze sculptures were so detailed that even the jewelry and facial
expressions looked realistic.
• Apart from gods and goddesses, sculptures also showed dancers, musicians, and
everyday life.
What’s interesting is that these bronze statues were made using the lost-wax technique,
which was very advanced for that time.
3. Painting: Fading, but Still Glorious
Although very few Chola paintings have survived, the ones inside temples like
Brihadeeswarar give us a glimpse. The paintings usually showed:
• Stories from the lives of gods
• Kings in devotion
• Religious rituals
Even today, the faded murals on the temple walls still speak of the artistic genius of the
Cholas.
Literature under the Chola Empire
Just as temples were built to glorify gods, literature was written to celebrate the gods, kings,
ethics, and human values. The Chola period is marked by a revival and flowering of Tamil
literature, along with contributions to Sanskrit.
1. Religious Literature: The Bhakti Movement
A major literary wave during the Chola period was the Bhakti movement, where poets
expressed deep love and devotion to gods.
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• Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alvars composed devotional hymns in Tamil.
• Their poetry was collected in works like the Tirumurai (a 12-part collection of Saiva
literature).
• This literature used simple language, emotional depth, and musical rhythm, making
it popular among common people.
2. Court Literature: Praising Kings and Culture
Chola kings supported poets and scholars at their courts. Some important examples:
• Kamban, the author of Kamba Ramayanam (Tamil version of the Ramayana), is one
of the greatest Tamil poets.
• His work blended spiritual depth with literary beauty.
• Other writers wrote about history, ethics, and drama, often praising the kings and
their military victories.
3. Sanskrit and Other Subjects
While Tamil flourished, Sanskrit was also respected. Scholars translated Tamil texts into
Sanskrit and vice versa. Some Chola-era texts also covered:
• Medicine
• Astrology
• Music and Dance
• Architecture
This shows how literature was not just about poetry, but also about practical knowledge.
A Cultural Legacy That Lives On
The Chola period left a long-lasting impact on Indian culture.
• The art styles, especially temple architecture and bronze sculpture, influenced later
kingdoms.
• Literary works are still read and performed in Tamil Nadu and by Tamil communities
worldwide.
• Chola temples continue to be active religious centers.
In many ways, the Cholas showed that ruling a kingdom was not just about armies—it was
also about art, devotion, and knowledge.
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Critical Reflections
While praising the Chola contributions, we should also critically examine certain points:
• Much of the art and literature was religious and royal—the voices of common
people, women, and lower castes were often missing.
• The focus on temple construction also meant huge labor and resources, which may
have burdened the peasants.
• Still, their art promoted emotional, spiritual, and cultural unity, which helped Tamil
identity grow stronger.
Conclusion
To conclude, the Chola Empire’s contributions to art and literature were rich, deep, and
meaningful. Through magnificent temples, lifelike sculptures, and devotional poetry, they
created a legacy that has lasted for more than a thousand years.
For university students, understanding Chola art and literature is not just about memorizing
names and dates. It is about appreciating how a great empire used stone, bronze, and words
to express devotion, power, beauty, and knowledge. The Cholas didn’t just build temples
and write poems—they built a culture that still inspires.
“This paper has been carefully prepared for educational purposes. If you notice any mistakes or
have suggestions, feel free to share your feedback.”
